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AI now beats humans at basic reading and maths

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Animation of a coring bit descending from the base of a rover to drill into a sandy surface.

NASA’s Perseverance rover collects a sample from a Martian rock using a drill bit on the end of its robotic arm.Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

NASA is seeking fresh ideas for delivering Mars rocks collected by the Perseverance rover to Earth. With its up to US$11 billion price tag, the current plan is “too expensive” and its schedule is “unacceptable”, said NASA administrator Bill Nelson. In the agency’s original vision, a spacecraft would carry a lander and a rocket to Mars. The rocket would launch the lander plus samples into Martian orbit, where they would meet another spacecraft that would then return the samples to Earth.

Nature | 5 min read

With average global sea surface temperatures breaking records every day for more than a year, corals have been pushed into the fourth planet-wide mass bleaching event. Over the past year, more than half of ocean waters home to coral reefs have experienced heat stress high enough to cause bleaching, in which coral turn white and sometimes die. And that number is increasing every week, says ecologist Derek Manzello, head of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Coral Reef Watch program. Within a week or two, “this event is likely to be the most spatially extensive global bleaching event on record”.

The New York Times | 6 min read

Artificial intelligence (AI) systems can now nearly match — and sometimes exceed — human performance in tasks such as reading comprehension, image classification and mathematics. “The pace of gain has been startlingly rapid,” says social scientist Nestor Maslej, editor-in-chief of the annual AI Index. The report calls for new benchmarks to assess algorithms’ capabilities and highlights the need for a consensus on what ethical AI models would look like.

Nature | 6 min read

Reference: 2024 AI Index report

Researchers have identified three new giant kangaroo species that lived around 5 million to 40,000 years ago. One of them, Protemnodon viator, weighed up to 170 kilograms — about twice as much as the largest living kangaroos. While most Protemnodon species were thought to move on four legs, viator had long limbs and could probably hop long distances. “People often think we have a pretty weird modern ecosystem in Australia … but our animals are comparatively non-freaky compared to things we used to have in the past,” says palaeontologist Gilbert Price.

The Guardian | 4 min read

Reference: Megataxa paper

A near-complete fossil skeleton of the extinct giant kangaroo Protemnodon viator from Lake Callabonna, missing just a few bones from the hand, foot and tail (Flinders University).

Features & opinion

Many clinicians think that people who take obesity drugs such as semaglutide (sold as Wegovy and Ozempic) should take them for life. But the medications’ cost, brutal side effects and many other factors can force people off them. Those who quit usually regain a substantial amount of body weight, and often see a rebound in negative health effects such as high blood pressure, and increased blood glucose and cholesterol levels. So much work has gone into developing the drugs, says clinician-scientist Jamy Ard, “we need just as much — if not more — work to be done on what happens after people reach that goal in that weight-reduced state for the rest of their lives”.

Nature | 9 min read

Researchers often have to rely on rumours when deciding how to interact with a peer accused of harassment or bullying. Closed misconduct investigations ensure privacy — both for the accused and the accusers — but can also mean that harassers can continue their behaviour by simply moving institutions. Many advocate for semi-transparency, for example an information-sharing scheme for employers or institutions reporting anonymized misconduct statistics. Proactive policies are needed, such as conference codes of conduct, says astrophysicist Emma Chapman, who campaigned to ban non-disclosure agreements in disciplinary processes. “There is no easy answer, but that doesn’t mean that we default to having no answer,” she says.

Nature | 12 min read

Researchers have mapped the tens of thousands of cells and connections between them in one cubic millimetre of the mouse brain. The project, which took US$100 million and years of effort by more than 100 scientists, is a milestone of ‘connectomics’, which aims to chart the circuits that coordinate the organ’s many functions. Identifying the brain’s architectural principles could one day guide the development of artificial neural networks. Teams are now working on mapping larger areas, although a whole-brain reconstruction “may be a ‘Mars shot’ — it’s really much harder than going to the Moon”, says connectomics pioneer Jeff Lichtman.

Nature | 12 min read

3D rendering of thousands of individual neurons

A network of thousands of individual neurons from a small subset of cells in the Machine Intelligence from Cortical Networks project data set.Credit: MICrONS Explorer

QUOTE OF THE DAY

Expanding the story of space beyond well-known icons is key to inspiring the next generation of innovators and explorers, says planetary scientist Ellen Stofan, who oversees aspects of the Smithsonian Institution including the US National Air and Space Museum. (Nature | 7 min read)

Today, I’m considering ten of the more unconventional reasons for publishing a paper, including ‘symbolic immortality’ and revenge. The authors, career researcher William Donald and organizational psychologist Nicholas Duck, explain that their paper fulfils their own unconventional motivation: creating the citation “Donald and Duck (2024)”.

Please tell me about your unusual motivation for research — alongside any feedback on this newsletter — by sending an email to [email protected].

Thanks for reading,

Katrina Krämer, associate editor, Nature Briefing

With contributions by Flora Graham, Smriti Mallapaty and Sarah Tomlin

Want more? Sign up to our other free Nature Briefing newsletters:

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Humans and their livestock have sheltered in this cave for 10,000 years

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A first-of-its-kind study in northwestern Saudi Arabia suggests that humans and their livestock have been using a cave for shelter sporadically for up to 10,000 years. The finding1 offers insight into the region’s history and ecology.

In the past decade, satellite data and fossil finds have suggested that the Arabian Peninsula was not always an arid desert. Periods when the region contained lakes and lush greenery might have drawn people and animals there from Africa, according to the study’s authors.

“Today, it’s a fairly harsh environment,” says study co-author Mathew Stewart, a zooarchaeologist at Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia. Across the surface of Saudi Arabia, “the fossil record is just horrendous”, he says. Wind and scorching heat reduce bones and artefacts to dust, making them difficult to study.

But in 2018, Stewart and his colleagues described an 88,000-year-old finger bone from the Saudi Arabian desert2 — one of the oldest human fossils found outside of Africa. And in 2020, they described footprints on a lake shore dating back around 120,000 years3. These suggested that the region had stories to give up.

The researchers turned to caves under Harrat Khaybar, a vast basalt plain pocked with volcanic craters in northwestern Saudi Arabia. The caves were made by lava as it flowed from nearby volcanoes, forming rocky tunnels as it cooled.

A researcher digging in a square trench.

The researchers excavated a one-square-metre site near the entrance of the cave.Credit: Green Arabia Project

An excavation near the entrance of one cave produced more than 600 animal and human bones and 44 stone-tool fragments. The oldest stone tools dated back to as many as 10,000 years ago, and the oldest human bone fragments were almost 7,000 years old. The study was published on 17 April in PLoS ONE1.

The distribution of samples suggests that people did not live in the cave for long periods, but stayed there occasionally. Nearby rock art depicts people with goats and sheep. The drawings are difficult to date, but they support the fossil evidence that people used the cave as a place to rest and shelter their herds. Even today, farmers seek shade and water in underground lava tubes for themselves and their animals, says Stewart.

According to Melissa Kennedy, an archaeologist at the University of Sydney in Australia, the finding suggests that herders have travelled across Harrat Khaybar from oasis to oasis on the same paths for thousands of years.

Across Harrat Khaybar are paths spanning hundreds of kilometres, some flanked with stone tombs dating back around 4,500 years. Kennedy says the routes were probably used even earlier than the dating of the tombs would suggest. “People are very lazy,” says Kennedy. “You find the easiest route and you stick to it.”

Ahmed Nassr, an archaeologist at the University of Ha’il in Saudi Arabia, says the discovery is significant, especially given that the country is planning to invest billions of dollars in archaeological studies. “This discovery opens new windows into Arabian research in prehistory,” he says. He hopes that further geographical surveys will be conducted in Saudi Arabia, because they could reveal more such cave sites. “There are many areas that are unexplored.”

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AI now beats humans at basic tasks — new benchmarks are needed, says major report

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Artificial intelligence (AI) systems, such as the chatbot ChatGPT, have become so advanced that they now very nearly match or exceed human performance in tasks including reading comprehension, image classification and competition-level mathematics, according to a new report (see ‘Speedy advances’). Rapid progress in the development of these systems also means that many common benchmarks and tests for assessing them are quickly becoming obsolete.

These are just a few of the top-line findings from the Artificial Intelligence Index Report 2024, which was published on 15 April by the Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence at Stanford University in California. The report charts the meteoric progress in machine-learning systems over the past decade.

In particular, the report says, new ways of assessing AI — for example, evaluating their performance on complex tasks, such as abstraction and reasoning — are more and more necessary. “A decade ago, benchmarks would serve the community for 5–10 years” whereas now they often become irrelevant in just a few years, says Nestor Maslej, a social scientist at Stanford and editor-in-chief of the AI Index. “The pace of gain has been startlingly rapid.”

Speedy advances: Line chart showing the performance of AI systems on certain benchmark tests compared to humans since 2012.

Source: Artificial Intelligence Index Report 2024.

Stanford’s annual AI Index, first published in 2017, is compiled by a group of academic and industry specialists to assess the field’s technical capabilities, costs, ethics and more — with an eye towards informing researchers, policymakers and the public. This year’s report, which is more than 400 pages long and was copy-edited and tightened with the aid of AI tools, notes that AI-related regulation in the United States is sharply rising. But the lack of standardized assessments for responsible use of AI makes it difficult to compare systems in terms of the risks that they pose.

The rising use of AI in science is also highlighted in this year’s edition: for the first time, it dedicates an entire chapter to science applications, highlighting projects including Graph Networks for Materials Exploration (GNoME), a project from Google DeepMind that aims to help chemists discover materials, and GraphCast, another DeepMind tool, which does rapid weather forecasting.

Growing up

The current AI boom — built on neural networks and machine-learning algorithms — dates back to the early 2010s. The field has since rapidly expanded. For example, the number of AI coding projects on GitHub, a common platform for sharing code, increased from about 800 in 2011 to 1.8 million last year. And journal publications about AI roughly tripled over this period, the report says.

Much of the cutting-edge work on AI is being done in industry: that sector produced 51 notable machine-learning systems last year, whereas academic researchers contributed 15. “Academic work is shifting to analysing the models coming out of companies — doing a deeper dive into their weaknesses,” says Raymond Mooney, director of the AI Lab at the University of Texas at Austin, who wasn’t involved in the report.

That includes developing tougher tests to assess the visual, mathematical and even moral-reasoning capabilities of large language models (LLMs), which power chatbots. One of the latest tests is the Graduate-Level Google-Proof Q&A Benchmark (GPQA)1, developed last year by a team including machine-learning researcher David Rein at New York University.

The GPQA, consisting of more than 400 multiple-choice questions, is tough: PhD-level scholars could correctly answer questions in their field 65% of the time. The same scholars, when attempting to answer questions outside their field, scored only 34%, despite having access to the Internet during the test (randomly selecting answers would yield a score of 25%). As of last year, AI systems scored about 30–40%. This year, Rein says, Claude 3 — the latest chatbot released by AI company Anthropic, based in San Francisco, California — scored about 60%. “The rate of progress is pretty shocking to a lot of people, me included,” Rein adds. “It’s quite difficult to make a benchmark that survives for more than a few years.”

Cost of business

As performance is skyrocketing, so are costs. GPT-4 — the LLM that powers ChatGPT and that was released in March 2023 by San Francisco-based firm OpenAI — reportedly cost US$78 million to train. Google’s chatbot Gemini Ultra, launched in December, cost $191 million. Many people are concerned about the energy use of these systems, as well as the amount of water needed to cool the data centres that help to run them2. “These systems are impressive, but they’re also very inefficient,” Maslej says.

Costs and energy use for AI models are high in large part because one of the main ways to make current systems better is to make them bigger. This means training them on ever-larger stocks of text and images. The AI Index notes that some researchers now worry about running out of training data. Last year, according to the report, the non-profit research institute Epoch projected that we might exhaust supplies of high-quality language data as soon as this year. (However, the institute’s most recent analysis suggests that 2028 is a better estimate.)

Ethical concerns about how AI is built and used are also mounting. “People are way more nervous about AI than ever before, both in the United States and across the globe,” says Maslej, who sees signs of a growing international divide. “There are now some countries very excited about AI, and others that are very pessimistic.”

In the United States, the report notes a steep rise in regulatory interest. In 2016, there was just one US regulation that mentioned AI; last year, there were 25. “After 2022, there’s a massive spike in the number of AI-related bills that have been proposed” by policymakers, Maslej says.

Regulatory action is increasingly focused on promoting responsible AI use. Although benchmarks are emerging that can score metrics such as an AI tool’s truthfulness, bias and even likability, not everyone is using the same models, Maslej says, which makes cross-comparisons hard. “This is a really important topic,” he says. “We need to bring the community together on this.”

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Anthony Epstein (1921–2024), discoverer of virus causing cancer in humans

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Portrait of Anthony Epstein

Credit: Stuart Bebb/Wolfson College Archives

Anthony (Tony) Epstein, co-discoverer of the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), was the founding father of research into the part that viruses play in the development of human cancers. Today, seven types of viral infection — more than one of which can be prevented by vaccination — are known to cause specific cancers in people. Collectively, virus-associated tumours account for up to 15% of cancer cases globally each year. Yet, when Epstein began his research in the early 1960s, the concept of a link between viruses and human cancer was deeply unfashionable. Epstein’s discovery has had an enormous influence on the direction of cancer research, from underlying mechanisms to new prospects for prevention.

Epstein was born in London in 1921 and —educated at St Paul’s School. He then attended Trinity College in Cambridge, UK, followed by medical training at Middlesex Hospital Medical School in London. After taking house-surgeon jobs in London and Cambridge, he served for two years in the Royal Army Medical Corps before specializing in pathology at the Bland Sutton Institute at the Middlesex Hospital. There, he developed his interest in tumour viruses and began researching the Rous sarcoma virus. Many years earlier, Peyton Rous at The Rockefeller University in New York City had shown that this virus causes cancer in chickens.

In 1956, Epstein spent a year at the -Rockefeller, working in the laboratory of cell biologist George Palade, who pioneered the use of electron microscopy to study the structure of cells. That technique allowed Epstein to visualize viral infections in cells and was the key to his subsequent discovery of EBV.

In 1961, Denis Burkitt, a little-known surgeon at Makerere College in Kampala, gave a talk at Middlesex Hospital entitled ‘The Commonest Children’s Cancer in Tropical Africa: A Hitherto Unrecognised Syndrome’. Intrigued by the title, Epstein attended and was transfixed. Burkitt described not only the tumour’s unusual anatomical presentation, typically in the jaw of young children, but also its geographical restriction to equatorial Africa. Epstein wondered whether a virus — possibly passed on by an insect bite, similar to the transmission of the malarial -parasite — could be linked to the tumour.

Over the next two years, the pair collaborated closely. Burkitt sent fresh biopsies of the tumour (later named Burkitt lymphoma) in culture fluid by plane from Kampala to London for Epstein to analyse. Discouragingly, cell-culture assays to detect known viruses were consistently negative. Under the electron microscope, the cells showed no sign of infection. Fragments of the tumour failed to grow in culture.

After more than 20 attempts, in December 1963, a biopsy sample arrived late in the day, delayed by fog at London Heathrow airport. Unusually, the fluid was cloudy. This was not due to bacterial contamination, as feared, but to free-floating tumour cells. This tumour was the first to grow in culture, producing a cell line named EB1; E after Epstein, and B after his research assistant Yvonne Barr.

Within weeks, there were enough cells for analysis using an electron microscope. In the first image, one of the cells contained herpesvirus-like particles. Epstein sent EB1 cells to the virology laboratory at the Children’s Hospital in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where Werner and Gertrude Henle tested them using human sera with defined patterns of reactivity against known human herpesviruses. The pattern against EB1 cells was different, proving that the virus was unique. The Henles dubbed it the Epstein–Barr virus, after the cell line’s name.

It took decades of work by Epstein’s lab and many others before EBV was unequivocally recognized as the first human tumour virus. The virus proved to be widespread in all populations, and Burkitt lymphoma’s paradoxical link to Africa was later explained: malarial infection promotes EBV’s causative role in this type of tumour. The Henles went on to show that EBV causes infectious mononucleosis (glandular fever), and the virus is now causally linked to at least six types of human tumour, together accounting for around 200,000 new cancer cases worldwide each year.

Not long after his discovery, Epstein moved to the University of Bristol, UK, where he was a professor of pathology, accompanied by pathologist Bert Achong, his colleague at Middlesex. There, he built what became a model multidisciplinary department, integrating basic research in virology, immunology and oncology with medical and veterinary pathology practice. He also established a ground-breaking undergraduate course in cellular pathology, with final-year research projects open to science, medical and veterinary students, a base from which many successful research careers were launched. All of this work was way ahead of its time.

Tony received many honours. Elected a -fellow of the Royal Society in 1979, he served as the society’s foreign secretary for five years from 1986, and was knighted in 1991. However, those of us who worked closely with him remember not this rather formal public persona, but a colleague who was an engaging conversationalist, with a ready wit and command of language. Writing papers with him was an unforgettable experience! As both researcher and mentor, his greatest virtues were absolute clarity of thought and commitment to a long-term vision.

Nowhere was his foresight more evident than when, as early as the 1970s, he established an animal model of EBV-induced lymphomas in New World monkeys as a testbed for his long-term goal of EBV vaccine development. Remarkably, he lived long enough to see this vision become reality (at least two candidates are now in clinical trials), following a resurgence of interest in vaccinology in our post-COVID-19 world.

Competing Interests

The author declares no competing interests.

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Oldest stone tools in Europe hint at ancient humans’ route there

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Close up view of a stone tool possibly from Layer VII at Korolevo I.

A stone tool from the archaeological site of Korolevo in western Ukraine.Credit: Roman Garba

Stone tools found in western Ukraine date to roughly 1.4 million years ago1, archaeologists say. That means the tools are the oldest known artefacts in Europe made by ancient humans and offer insight into how and when our early relatives first reached the region.

The findings support the theory that these early arrivals — probably of the versatile species Homo erectus — entered Europe from the east and spread west, says study co-lead author Roman Garba, an archaeologist at the Czech Academy of Sciences in Prague. “Until now, there was no strong evidence for an east-to-west migration,” he says. “Now we have it.”

Prehistoric sites documenting the presence of human ancestors in Europe before 800,000 years ago are extremely rare, says Véronique Michel, a geochronologist at the University of Côte d’Azur in Nice, France, who was not involved in the research. “This new study adds another piece to the puzzle [of] the dispersal of early hominins in Europe.”

The findings were published on 6 March in Nature.

Set in stone

The tools were discovered in the 1980s at the Korolevo archaeological site near Ukraine’s border with Romania, yet no one had been able to precisely date them.

To do so, Garba and his colleagues used a dating method based on cosmogenic nuclides — rare isotopes generated when high-energy cosmic rays collide with chemical elements in minerals on Earth’s surface. Changes in the concentrations of these cosmogenic nuclides can reveal how long ago a mineral was buried. By calculating the ratio of specific cosmogenic nuclides in the sediment layer in which the tools were buried, the team estimated that the implements must be 1.4 million years old. The dating analyses, Michel says, “appear highly reliable”.

Until now, the earliest precisely dated evidence of hominins in Europe comprised fossils2 and stone tools3 found in Spain and France. Both are 1.1 million to 1.2 million years old.

Intrepid travellers

The dates of the Korolevo tools lead the researchers to speculate that the human ancestors who made them were H. erectus, the only archaic humans known to have lived outside Africa about 1.4 million years ago. What’s more, the Korolevo tools resemble those found at archaeological sites in the Caucasus Mountains that have been linked to H. erectus and dated to about 1.8 million years ago, says Mads Knudsen, a geoscientist at Aarhus University in Denmark, who co-led the study. However, Knudsen adds, Korolevo’s most ancient layer of sediment didn’t yield any fossilized human remains, so it is impossible to say for sure that the tools were made by H. erectus.

Geographically, Korolevo lies between older archaeological sites at the intersection of Asia and Europe, and younger sites in southwestern Europe. The findings give a fuller picture of the direction of travel probably taken by the first Europeans, supporting the idea that they spread from east to west — perhaps along the valleys of the Danube River, Garba says.

Korolevo is a treasure trove of prehistoric remains, says study co-author Vitaly Usyk, an archaeologist affiliated with the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in Kyiv, who visited the site last year with Garba for the first time since the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022. The Korolevo site is relatively safe and hasn’t been damaged during the war, although the area is now overgrown with vegetation, Garba says. “I can imagine doing fieldwork there even now.”

However, Usyk notes, few scientists can participate in field research at Korolevo or anywhere else in the country, because of travel restrictions or because they have fled the conflict. Usyk himself left Ukraine in 2022 and is now working at the Institute of Archaeology in Brno, Czech Republic, with a fellowship that allows him to continue doing his research. “Would I like to go back [to Ukraine]? Yes, of course,” he says. “I would like to organize expeditions to Korolevo to help other scientists reveal how ancient humans came from Africa to Europe.”

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Bumblebees show behaviour previously thought to be unique to humans

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Scientists have long accepted the existence of animal culture, be that tool use in New Caledonian crows, or Japanese macaques washing sweet potatoes.

But one thing thought to distinguish human culture is our ability to do things too complex to work out alone — no one could have split the atom or traveled into space without relying on the years of iterative advances that came first.

But now, a team of researchers think they’ve observed this phenomenon for the first time outside of humans – in bumblebees.

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Cypress silicon speaker reinvents how humans experience sound

New Cypress silicon speaker reinvents how humans experience sound

xMEMS Labs manufacturers and designers of solid-state, all-silicon micro speakers has this week announced a breakthrough in sound reproduction, changing the way true wireless stereo (TWS) earbuds create ultra high-quality, high-resolution sound experiences across all audio frequencies. The MEMS speaker, Cypress is set to redefine the audio quality of true wireless stereo (TWS) earbuds, offering an audio experience that surpasses traditional moving-coil sound reproduction techniques.

The Cypress speaker is a marvel of modern engineering, with its core technology being the ingenious application of ultrasonic amplitude modulation for sound production. This innovative approach marks a significant shift from conventional methods, ensuring high-fidelity sound across all frequencies. The result is an audio output that is not only louder but also sharper, particularly in the low-frequency response, a critical factor for active noise canceling (ANC) earbuds.

Built on a reliable MEMS platform, the Cypress speaker exemplifies quality and consistency in production. This platform, in conjunction with the speaker’s solid-state design, offers numerous advantages over traditional moving-coil speakers. These include a faster response, near-zero phase shift, and superior spatial imaging accuracy. These characteristics contribute to a more precise and immersive sound reproduction, enhancing the overall audio experience for the listener.

Features of the new Cypress solid-state MEMS speaker

– Cypress uses ultrasonic amplitude modulation for sound production, enhancing audio fidelity.
– The technology is more efficient than legacy coil speakers, providing high-resolution audio.
– It is based on a proven MEMS platform, ensuring quality and uniformity in production.
– The speaker offers numerous benefits over traditional designs, including faster response, near-zero phase shift, and superior spatial imaging accuracy.
– Cypress is non-magnetic, reducing weight and electromagnetic interference.
– The speaker’s design allows for stronger bass comparable to larger coil speakers.
– It is particularly advantageous for ANC performance, with potential for wider bandwidth and reduced DSP complexity.
– Cypress prototypes are currently available to select customers, with mass production expected in late 2024.

Other articles we have written that you may find of interest on the subject of speakers :

One of the unique features of the Cypress speaker is its non-magnetic design. This design element not only reduces the weight of the earbuds but also minimizes the potential for electromagnetic interference, a common issue with traditional speakers. Moreover, the non-magnetic design allows for stronger bass production, comparable to that of larger coil speakers, without the need for additional weight or size.

The design of the Cypress speaker is particularly advantageous for ANC performance. It offers the potential for a wider bandwidth and reduced DSP complexity, making it an ideal choice for high-quality ANC earbuds. This technology could significantly improve the user’s listening experience, especially in noisy environments.

Currently, Cypress prototypes are available to select customers, with mass production expected to commence in late 2024. This timeline suggests that consumers could soon enjoy the benefits of this advanced speaker technology in their TWS earbuds.

The Cypress speaker from xMEMS Labs represents a significant advancement in audio technology. By utilizing ultrasonic amplitude modulation and a reliable MEMS platform, the speaker promises to deliver high-fidelity sound, superior bass production, and improved ANC performance. As such, the Cypress speaker is poised to elevate the audio quality of TWS earbuds, offering users an enhanced audio experience like never before.

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