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A Black mathematical history

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Journeys of Black Mathematicians: Forging Resilience Zala Films Directed by George Csicsery

What does a mathematician look like? Standing in front of a room of Black children aged six to twelve, research mathematician Zerotti Woods — who posed the question — is not far off their description. Woods, who is based at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, is wearing nice trousers, a jacket and even round glasses. Yet he’s told he doesn’t look like a mathematician. Their unspoken assumption seems to be that mathematicians are white.

In the documentary Journeys of Black Mathematicians: Forging Resilience, film maker George Csicsery interviews more than 50 scholars, who speak about the value of mathematics, share parts of their journeys and look to the future. The film, which was co-produced with the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute, premiered in January and has been released online. By juxtaposing career paths with the historical timeline of the civil-rights movement in the United States, the film seeks to show what Black mathematicians have been through and provide hope for what can be. That hope is more than a wish. It is backed up by descriptions of supportive programmes, nurturing educators, positive changes in the community and success stories.

Historical attitudes toward Black mathematicians thread through the film. Scholars such as William Claytor faced blatant discrimination throughout their careers. The US Supreme Court’s 1954 integration decision, in which segregated schools were deemed unconstitutional, gave Black students access to white educational spaces. But such access did not necessarily come with better education or treatment. One interviewee notes that the good teachers at Black schools did not follow the children to the desegregated schools. In higher education, Black spaces did not cease to exist. Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) were almost all founded before desegregation, because most pre-existing institutions, particularly in the southern states, either prohibited Black students from attending, or limited their presence through quotas.

Role models

Teaching and learning at HBCUs is a point of pride throughout the documentary. These are places where Black maths students are nurtured rather than ‘othered’. Many interviewees describe how the representation and support they found at these colleges propelled them into the field.

Among those acknowledged as impactful educators are Claude Dansby, who was at Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia, from 1922 to 1967, and Etta Falconer, who was mainly at Spelman College, also in Atlanta, between 1965 and 1985. Through interviews with former students and colleagues, Csicsery draws parallels between them and two mathematicians currently at Morehouse: Duane Cooper and Ulrica Wilson. All are beloved by students and are considered the main reason that some pursued and succeeded in maths. All four had a crucial influence on the paths of dozens of Black mathematicians — which speaks not just to their teaching methods, but more importantly to how they supported their students, and believed in and cared about them. Woods specifically mentions that Cooper taking responsibility for him was the only reason that he was allowed to finish his degree at Morehouse after having been expelled for a year. That care made all the difference.

Many who were interviewed in the film note just how few Black people they met on their maths journey. I’ve also found this. According to the 2018 US Mathematical and Statistical Sciences Annual Survey, 2.9% of US maths PhDs were awarded to Black mathematicians that year (see go.nature.com/3tphae6). Given that around 14% of the US population is Black, this number is incredibly low.

If you’re looking for an explanation, the documentary describes some of the roots of the systemic racism that still permeates maths. The US National Association for Mathematicians (NAM), created in 1969, aims to promote excellence in the mathematical sciences and “the mathematical development of underrepresented minorities”. Civil-rights pioneer and former educator at Winston-Salem State University in North Carolina, Virginia Newell, who appears in the film, makes its origins clear: “The reason why we started the NAM was because the whites did not want us at their meetings.” And how could Black mathematicians be welcome when meetings were being held at segregated institutions?

Portrait of William Claytor from 1937

William Claytor was discouraged by the racism prevalent in the field.Credit: Courtesy of the Dolph Briscoe Centre for American History

Black people are often still being treated disrespectfully at maths meetings, confirmed a 2021 report by an American Mathematical Society task force (see go.nature.com/43dhf67). By organizing a range of events — such as lecture series, sessions at large maths conferences and MATHFest, an annual meeting and networking event for undergraduate students — and by ensuring Black scholars are invited to them, NAM provides, crucially, a community.

Aspirations for the future

The stories of Black mathematicians shared in the film are inspiring. It is wonderful to learn about successes in academia and industry — but there is still a long way to go. Csicsery makes that clear by titling the final chapter of the film ‘Unfinished business’. The percentage of US maths PhDs earned by Black people has remained mostly unchanged since 1978. “We’ve not moved the needle in producing PhDs,” notes Freeman Hrabowski III, former president of the University of Maryland in Catonsville, who grew up in segregated Alabama.

The question that needs to be asked now is which spaces are worth entering. The film suggests that Black people should be everywhere, so that there are those with similar mindsets and values in every room. But I disagree; there are some rooms that we should not aspire to enter. Not just because they provide a hostile environment — that can eventually be changed. But because some spaces have too high a moral cost. Is it worthwhile to create weapons or work for security agencies, for example, in a push for representation? For me, the answer to that is absolutely not.

Csicsery’s film did not interrogate that idea, but we should. We should sit with the discomfort of the fact that pushing back against the inequities of the past and present should not include contributing to the oppression of others. When watching this worthwhile film, you will be equipped with enough history to ponder another question: where do we go from here?

Competing Interests

The author declares no competing interests.

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What is OpenAI’s Q* or Qstar mathematical algorithm?

What is OpenAI Q star mathematical algorithm

This guide provides more information on the potential implications of a new algorithm called Q* (Qstar) developed by OpenAI, which may represent a significant advancement in artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in the field of mathematical reasoning.  In the ever-evolving world of artificial intelligence (AI), we are witnessing a significant leap forward with the introduction of OpenAI’s Q* algorithm.

This new development is shaking up the AI landscape by enhancing the way AI systems understand and solve complex mathematical problems. The Q* algorithm is not just another incremental step; it’s a major stride that could potentially alter the intellectual capabilities of AI, opening up new possibilities across various scientific and technological domains.

What is OpenAI Qstar?

At the core of the Q* algorithm is a process supervision mechanism that significantly improves AI’s comprehension of numerical concepts. This breakthrough is akin to giving AI the mathematical intuition of a highly educated individual, which is a big deal for fields that rely heavily on complex calculations, such as physics and engineering. Imagine AI systems that can navigate through the most challenging equations and theories, aiding in groundbreaking discoveries and innovations.

The roots of the Q* algorithm can be traced to the work of researchers who have excelled in reinforcement learning and the development of AI networks that master games. This algorithm learns by engaging with mathematical problems, refining its approach to problem-solving in a manner similar to how AI mastered board games like chess and Go. This approach is now being adapted to the abstract realm of mathematics, showcasing the algorithm’s versatility.

OpenAI Qstar algorithm

What makes the Q* algorithm particularly powerful is its combination of Q-learning with advanced pathfinding techniques. This unique blend allows the AI to navigate through the complexities of mathematical problems, identifying the most efficient routes to solutions. Q-learning contributes to the AI’s improved decision-making by assessing the potential rewards of different actions, while the pathfinding aspect ensures that the AI can find the best way forward.

One area where the Q* algorithm’s enhanced mathematical abilities could have a significant impact is cryptography. With these new skills, AI could analyze cryptographic algorithms in unprecedented depth, potentially exposing vulnerabilities in current encryption methods. There are even rumors about the Qstars AI model’s ability to decrypt complex ciphertexts using novel mathematical strategies, which could revolutionize the field of cryptography.

Qstar in more depth

Here are some other articles you may find of interest on the subject of OpenAI and its AI models:

The advancements represented by the Q* algorithm have fueled discussions about the potential for achieving Artificial General Intelligence (AGI). AGI refers to an AI that can comprehend, learn, and apply knowledge across a broad spectrum of disciplines, much like a human being. The realization of AGI would be a monumental event, with implications that would ripple through society and the entire tech landscape.

Adding to the excitement is the buzz around AI’s capabilities for metacognition and cross-domain learning. The idea of an AI that can reflect on its own thought processes and apply knowledge from one domain to another is a significant step toward mimicking the complex nature of human thought. This could lead to AI systems that are not only highly intelligent but also possess a form of self-awareness and adaptability.

However, with great power comes great responsibility. The development of such advanced technologies underscores the need for transparency and ethical governance in AI organizations. The sudden departure of Sam Altman from OpenAI’s board and the warnings from researchers about the existential risks posed by AI emphasize the importance of responsible management and open communication in the AI sector.

The Q* algorithm is indeed a pivotal innovation in the field of AI, particularly in the realm of mathematical reasoning. As we observe the growth and impact of this technology, it is essential to maintain a commitment to transparency and ethical practices. The AI community must navigate this journey with care, ensuring that the benefits of AI are harnessed to their fullest while diligently addressing any potential risks. Learn moreover on the Reuters website.

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